Retention in medical treatment is one important factor in medication adherence and overall recovery. Transportation, however, can be one barrier that impacts a person’s ability to access treatment consistently. The current study aims to understand how Tarrant County’s public transportation system affects treatment access. Patrons at Fort Worth Central bus station (N = 32) were surveyed on their experiences related to utilization of public transportation for medical appointments. Results show that most patrons did not miss appointments due to transportation access; however, those that relied on public transportation reported missing appointments with some regularity. Results also demonstrate that many patrons were unaware of alternate transportation options, such as ZipZone or faith-based transportation services. Findings highlight the need to raise public awareness of alternative transportation options, especially among those who rely on public transit systems to access necessary medical care. Future research can examine these questions in a population of clinic patrons, or aim to spread awareness of public transportation alternatives.

Indirect evidence for motor preparation and planning comes from neural activity preceding neural commands to activate the effectors. Preparatory neural activity is observed in pallial areas controlling learned motor behaviors. Vocal learning in songbirds is an example of a learned, sequential motor behavior. Sound generation requires airflow past vibratory membranes. Therefore, neural control of respiration is essential for motor preparation and production. Prior to singing in zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) birds sing a series of repeated introductory notes. One view is that introductory notes are preparatory in nature for the upcoming song. An alternative view is that introductory notes are part of song and not preparatory in nature. To begin to unravel this mystery, we investigated respiratory patterns of introductory notes to determine whether they show features that are indicative or preparing to sing. Respiration is composed of cycles of inspiratory and expiratory airflow. During singing, birds accelerate inspiratory phases of respiration and generate higher amplitude pressure patterns, called mini-breaths that are characterized by an absence of phonation. If the introductory notes are preparatory in nature, we postulate that the mini-breaths during successive introductory notes would most closely match the mini-breaths during song. Similarly, during expiration birds produce shorter duration, higher amplitude pressure patterns that are vocal in nature. We hypothesized that the as the birds produce successive introductory notes, they should more closely approach the motor patterns generating the first song syllable. These results will provide evidence of whether introductory notes are a feature of motor preparation for singing or are an act of song production. This information can be used to further our understanding of the neural control of song motor planning, preparation, and production.

Introduction: During emerging adulthood, the dynamics of the parent-child relationship change such that parents need to support their child’s independence and autonomy (Padilla-Walker et al., 2019). Engaging in helicopter parenting, where parents excessively monitor their adult children, is associated with greater mental health problems for emerging adults (Schiffrin et al., 2014). Emerging adults who experience greater helicopter parenting also report higher levels of entitlement (Segrin et al., 2012). As emerging adults transition to attending college, perhaps living away from home for the first time, they may experience challenges that negatively impact their mental health. However, there is a lack of research that focuses on how helicopter parenting impacts well-being specifically related to students’ college experience. Thus, the overall goal of the current study was to examine associations between helicopter parenting and emerging adult’s college-related well-being. A second aim was to determine the extent to which psychological and academic entitlement (i.e., the belief that academic success is deserved and the avoidance of personal responsibility) mediated these associations.

Method: Participants included 657 undergraduate students at two private universities in the United States. Participants completed an online survey composed of several measures evaluating the participants’ parents’ helicopter parenting behaviors and the participants’ own academic entitlement, psychological entitlement, and college related well-being. Measures used in the current analyses included the Helicopter Parenting and Autonomy Supportive Behavior Scale (Schiffrin et al., 2014), the academic entitlement scale (Chowning & Campbell, 2009), the Psychological Entitlement Scale (Campbell et al., 2004), and the College Student Subjective Wellbeing Questionnaire (CSSWQ; Renshaw, 2016).

Results: Multiple mediation was used to investigate the extent to which academic entitlement – externalized responsibilities and entitled expectations -- and psychological entitlement mediated the association between helicopter parenting and well-being related to the college experience. Results revealed that helicopter parenting positively predicted each measure of entitlement, ps ≤ .001; but, only academic entitlement – externalized responsibilities significantly predicted college related well-being (b path), b = -5.82, SE = .71, p ≤ .001. The 95% confidence interval of the indirect effect using 5,000 bootstrap reiterations did not include zero [-1.25, -0.47], suggesting a significant indirect effect of helicopter parenting on college related well-being through academic entitlement – externalized responsibilities.

Discussion: Although helicopter parenting was associated with higher levels of each form of entitlement, only academic entitlement served as a mediator of the association between helicopter parenting and college related well-being. Students with higher levels of externalized responsibility generally avoid taking personal responsibility for their academic difficulties, instead blaming failures on others (e.g., their college professors). It is possible that these students were accustomed to having their parents manage academic tasks, particularly when they were living at home. However, now that they are living away from home and attending college, they feel entitled to expect similar treatment from their professors. These findings are important for college administrators and others working with college students to identify students who may be particularly vulnerable for struggling during the transition to college.

Alcohol consumption has increased in the general adult population, with an estimated 72% of Americans consuming at least one alcoholic beverage per year measured in 2012-2013 compared to 65.4% measured in 2001-2002 (Dawson et al., 2015). Previous research has identified parents as a significant factor in forming attitudes toward alcohol use. For example, children who are regularly exposed to their parents' drinking tend to drink more themselves and have an early onset of drinking behavior (Coombs et al., 1991), while negative attitudes to alcohol at home are associated with less drinking behavior in underaged drinkers (Yu, 1998). Although previous studies explored the effect of parental drinking behavior and parents' attitudes toward alcohol during the early years of life on alcohol consumption in young adulthood, little research has examined the emotional perception of memories of parental drinking in this relationship. Thus, the current research investigates the retrospective childhood stories of parental drinking and the emotional perception of the drinking situations in middle childhood on the current drinking behavior of young adults. In addition, I explored whether parent and child gender were related to this relationship. I hypothesized that more positively perceived alcohol-related memory of parental drinking in middle childhood would be associated with a higher level of alcohol use in young adulthood. Finally, according to previous research, I expected to find that the negative emotions about maternal drinking would be associated with less alcohol use in males (Haugland et al., 2013) and negative memories of paternal drinking will be linked with more drinking in females and males (Chassin et al., 1999). Positive memories of drinking for both females and males were expected to be associated with more alcohol consumption, regardless of a parental gender.
Method:Participants provided information regarding age and gender, ethnicity, GPA, relationship status, and their parents’ household income in demographic questionnaire. Participants’ alcohol consumption was measured using the self-reported, 10-item version of The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT; Saunders et al., 1993). The Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index (RAPI; White & Labouvie, 1989) was used to measure alcohol misuse among the participants. Alcohol use of parents was measured through the 30-item Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (CAST; Jones, 1983). Participants also retrospectively reported parental alcohol consumption by recalling a memorable or a typical episode from middle childhood (6-12 years) when one of the parents was consuming alcohol, as well as what they were feeling at that time. Each participant recalled an episode for a mother and a father separately.

Background and Research Question:
One strategy that typically improves students’ memory is to test themselves on information that they need to learn (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Students may do so by writing or typing their answers (i.e., overt retrieval) or by mentally answering questions (e.g., covert retrieval). We evaluated whether these different types of responses (typed retrieval vs. mental retrieval) influence the effectiveness of self-testing for memory when learning key terms and definitions.
In prior research, overt retrieval resulted in better learning compared to covert retrieval for learning complex material (e.g., definitions to key terms; Tauber et al., 2018), whereas covert and overt retrieval were equally effective for simple material (e.g., single words; Smith et al., 2013). Can differences in the dynamics of retrieval explain the discrepancies in the literature between overt and covert retrieval?

Hypothesis and Predictions:
According to the retrieval dynamics hypothesis, full retrieval attempts are more challenging and are better for memory than are retrieval attempts that are easy and that are terminated prematurely. Simple materials (e.g., key terms) are more easily retrieved than are complex materials (e.g., definitions). We predicted minimal differences between overt and covert retrieval with simple materials because the retrieval attempt is easy – only a word or two needs to be retrieved. However, we predicted overt retrieval to outperform covert retrieval with more complex materials because the retrieval attempt is more demanding – multiple units must be retrieved accurately, and students may stop prematurely when retrieving covertly.

Method:
Over 300 undergraduate students at TCU studied key terms and definitions from cognitive psychology (e.g., heuristic: a general rule or problem-solving strategy that usually produces a correct solution). Then, students underwent four rounds of self-paced retrieval practice with feedback. Some material was retrieved overtly, whereas other material was retrieved covertly. And, some students practiced retrieving definitions, whereas other students practiced retrieving key terms. Two days later, students completed a final test in which they were asked to either (a) recall the definitions when presented with the terms, or (b) recall the terms when presented with the definitions.

Results:
We conducted a 2 (overt vs. covert retrieval) x 2 (term vs. definition) mixed analysis of variance on both final tests. In both the test of terms and the test of definitions, performance was higher for material that was overtly retrieved compared to material that was covertly retrieved. And, the benefit of overt retrieval was larger for those were learned complex material (i.e., definitions).
Conclusions:
Our results are consistent with the retrieval dynamics hypothesis. Future research should explore methods to increase the effectiveness of covert retrieval practice, especially because students may engage in this strategy when studying in public spaces (e.g., a library). Until then, we recommend that students engage in overt retrieval practice, particularly when learning complex material for their courses.