Acute pancreatitis (AP) is an inflammatory condition characterized by premature pancreatic enzyme activation leading to autodigestion, local tissue injury, and systemic inflammation. AP commonly causes abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and ileus, which can decrease oral intake and increase the risk of malnutrition. In clinical practice, patients with AP often present with comorbid conditions that further complicate feeding tolerance. Historically, bowel rest and delayed feeding were standard management strategies. However, growing evidence demonstrates that early nutrition intervention improves outcomes, including reduced infectious complications, shorter hospital length of stay, and preservation of gut mucosal integrity. Medical nutrition therapy in AP requires careful assessment of feeding tolerance, disease severity, and metabolic demands. Current evidence-based guidelines recommend early oral feeding in mild pancreatitis and initiation of enteral nutrition within 24–48 hours in moderate to severe cases, with parenteral nutrition reserved for patients unable to tolerate enteral intake or meet requirements. Recommended diet progression involves advancement to low-fat or regular diets as tolerated rather than routine use of restrictive liquid diets. Key interventions include early diet advancement, appropriate diet or formula selection based on tolerance, provision of approximately 25–35 kcal/kg/day and 1.2–1.5 g/kg/day protein, and close monitoring of fluid status and biochemical markers, with adjustments individualized to clinical status. This case report reviews current nutrition guidelines for AP and highlights the importance of implementing evidence-based nutrition strategies in a patient with complex clinical presentations and increased nutrition risk.

Non-occlusive mesenteric ischemia (NOMI) is a rare but highly fatal form of acute mesenteric ischemia, which is defined by a sudden interruption of blood supply to the intestines. NOMI occurs most commonly in critically ill, mechanically ventilated patients with hemodynamic instability presenting with low cardiac output and vasoconstriction. Mortality remains high due to diagnostic delays, rapid progression to bowel necrosis, and multisystem organ failure. While nutrition therapy is not a primary treatment for NOMI, it becomes essential following diagnosis due to repeated surgical interventions, sepsis, and increased metabolic demand, and the frequent interruption of feeding caused by hemodynamic instability. In critically ill patients, particularly with obesity, medical nutrition therapy (MNT) must balance the risks of underfeeding with the potential risks of enteral nutrition (EN) intolerance and bowel ischemia. Current evidence supports early nutrition intervention, prioritizing EN when hemodynamically stable, while initiating parenteral nutrition (PN) when EN is contraindicated or not feasible. Guidelines recommend hypocaloric, high protein feeding in obese critically ill patients to preserve lean mass and reduce the risks of complications of overfeeding. This case report highlights complexities of implementing evidence-based nutrition support in NOMI, and emphasizes the importance of individualized nutrition strategies, close monitoring, and interdisciplinary coordination to preserve nutritional status and support clinical outcomes.

Prebiotic sodas are marketed as healthy alternatives to traditional soda, but these claims have not yet been substantiated by research. This study evaluated the effects of fasted consumption of the prebiotic sodas Olipop and Poppi, compared with Diet Coke and Coca-Cola Original, on blood glucose, insulin, glucagon-like-peptide-1 (GLP-1), satiety, gastrointestinal symptoms, and beverage preference. A single-blind, repeated-measures design was employed with 10 participants. Participants completed four randomly assigned trials with a one-week washout period between each. During each visit, blood samples and satiety questionnaires were collected at baseline and throughout a two-hour trial. Beverage preference was assessed post-consumption, and gastrointestinal symptoms were evaluated using a follow-up questionnaire 24h post-intervention. The results from this study are expected to be completed by mid-April (by SRS).

The overall goal of our study is to understand how excess adiposity in women with and without
confounding cardiometabolic risk factors influences breast cancer cell growth and oxidative stress
signaling. I have already collected preliminary data indicating that activity of the antioxidant response
gene, NRF2, and expression of NRF2 targets are decreased in serum from obese subject, regardless of
phenotype. We investigated the functional consequences of these responses
by measuring and quantifying differences in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. We also
investigated if these changes could lead to changes in breast cancer cell growth. To
investigate this, MCF7 breast cancer cells was grown in 6 distinct treatment groups reflecting varied
human metabolic health: CON (healthy control), NWO (normal weight obese), MUO (metabolically
unhealthy obese), and MHO (metabolically healthy obese), alongside the standard fetal bovine serum-
containing media a negative control. Reactive oxygen species production was assessed using a reagent
that fluoresces when it becomes oxidized by ROS. We expect cells grown in serum from obese subjects
will have higher levels of ROS production and increased invasive capacity. However, the results have yet
to be processed as of Mar 6. This research could demonstrate how total systemic metabolic health
influences oxidative stress responses and invasive potential, linking gene expression to real functional
outcomes. These insights could heavily inform medical assessments.

Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a highly prevalent form of heart disease in which the heart is unable to pump an adequate amount of blood to meet the body’s needs, with characteristic symptoms such as fluid overload, respiratory distress, and fatigue on exertion. Nutrition is an integral part of care for CHF with significant implications on health outcomes such as patient survival and quality of life. The primary goals of medical nutrition therapy (MNT) include preventing malnutrition, meeting patients’ nutritional needs, and managing signs and symptoms. CHF increases the risk of malnutrition. Evidence-based guidelines developed by the Heart Failure Society of America and the American College of Cardiology recommend weight loss for patients with overweight or obesity and weight gain for those with unintentional weight loss or cardiac cachexia, a condition involving fat loss and muscle wasting. The registered dietitian (RD), a key member of the interdisciplinary team, assesses patients’ nutritional needs and provides individualized nutrition care, including appropriate calorie recommendations and potential restrictions on sodium, fluid, and fat. Excessive sodium and fluid can contribute to volume overload, while the recommendations for fat intake address both the type and amount of fat to consume to control cholesterol levels. Despite established guidelines, implementing appropriate nutrition interventions can be complex, particularly in patients with numerous clinical needs. This case report discusses the challenges of balancing nutrition interventions with patient goals of care in a patient with CHF and malnutrition.

Patients with cancer who undergo ileostomy creation are at high risk for dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, malnutrition, and reduced quality of life due to increased gastrointestinal (GI) losses, impaired nutrient absorption, and the complex self-management and physiological demands associated with ostomy care. An ileostomy is an opening in the abdomen where the GI tract is brought to the surface, formed from the ileum. Evidence-based medical nutrition therapy (MNT) guidelines for ileostomy management emphasize a fiber-restricted diet in the early postoperative period (6-8 weeks), small, frequent meals, limitation of hypertonic and excessive hypotonic fluids, use of oral rehydration solutions, close monitoring of ostomy output, and sufficient protein intake to support wound healing. In contrast, evidence-based guidelines for severe chronic disease-related malnutrition prioritize adequate energy and protein provision, oral nutrition supplementation, weight stabilization or gain, correction of micronutrient deficiencies, and consideration of advanced nutrition support when oral intake remains inadequate. However, implementation of these standards becomes complex in the context of advanced malignancy, significant symptom burden, and evolving goals of care. This case report examines the application of evidence-based guidelines in an older adult with metastatic endometrial cancer, severe chronic disease-related malnutrition, and recent ileostomy following small bowel obstruction (SBO), illustrating the importance of individualizing MNT to the patient’s clinical trajectory and goals of care.

Oral health is a critical component of overall well-being; however, many children in underserved communities lack access to dental health education and essential hygiene resources. Early oral health education is vital in establishing lifelong preventive habits and reducing the risk of future dental complications. The New Smiles initiative is a student-led outreach program designed to improve oral hygiene awareness and access to dental care resources among elementary school students in the Fort Worth community.
Through interactive presentations delivered to local elementary schools, the program teaches students the importance of proper brushing and flossing techniques, healthy dietary habits, and routine dental care. To reinforce these lessons, hygiene kits containing toothbrushes, toothpaste, floss, and educational materials were assembled in collaboration with CookChildren’s and distributed to participating students. Additionally, a brief survey was administered to assess students’ baseline knowledge of oral hygiene and evaluate the effectiveness of the educational presentation.
By combining hands-on education, community partnerships, and the distribution of essential hygiene supplies, the New Smiles program aims to promote preventive oral health practices at an early age. This initiative seeks to reduce oral health disparities while empowering children with the knowledge and resources needed to maintain lifelong dental health.

Women who are obese have a much higher risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer than women who maintain a healthy body weight. However, excess body fat, even in the absence of excess body weight, a condition referred to as normal weight obesity also increases breast cancer risk. The goal of our study is to determine how serum from human subjects with three distinct obesity phenotypes, metabolically healthy obese, metabolically unhealthy obese, and normal-weight obese, influences breast cancer cell growth and proliferation. We have already collected preliminary data indicating differences in cell viability via NADH measurement, yet metabolic activity alone does not definitively demonstrate growth or vitality because cells may be metabolically active without entering S-phase or replicating. To conclusively show DNA replication (and thus true proliferation/vitality), our plan is to quantitatively measure differences in DNA synthesis using the Click-iT EdU DNA-synthesis assay, which uses a thymidine analog incorporated into newly synthesized DNA which can be detected by the appearance of fluorescent conjugates. Based on our preliminary findings, we expect that the lower rates of metabolic activity in cells grown in serum from obese subjects are not due to reduced rates of cellular proliferation. These findings could be used to inform improved, targeted nutritional and chemotherapeutic strategies for individuals with distinct obesity phenotypes.

Oncolytic viruses, which preferentially target cancer cells and stimulate the immune response, offer a promising avenue for cancer therapy. In the manuscript by Bourgeois et al. (2016), the researchers test a novel oncolytic vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) strain that induces interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production for its potential as an oncolytic virus. In this study, we utilize an ordinary differential equation model to parameterize the dynamics of viral infection, immune response production (IFN-γ), and tumor growth. Using data extracted from key figures in Bourgeois et al. (2016), we estimate model parameters such as viral titer, IFN-γ levels, and tumor growth by minimizing the sum of squared residuals (SSR). In addition, we compare the dynamics of this novel VSV strain to a control virus, identifying key parameters that maximize tumor elimination. This model provides insights into the therapeutic potential of oncolytic VSV and helps inform strategies for maximizing its efficacy in cancer treatment.

Our Milky Way’s neighbor, the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), is a galaxy significantly shaped by powerful explosions from massive, dying stars that drive gas outflows. These explosions release gas and heavy elements, enriching the galaxy's outskirts and contributing to the formation of stars and planets. Understanding these processes is crucial for studying galactic evolution and the mechanisms that drive it. Our research uses observations from the Hubble Space Telescope to characterize the properties of the outflows from the LMC. Our observations are of light from background stars that pass through the LMC’s gas clouds. These clouds block some of the incoming light, and we analyze the missing features to study the physical properties of the outflows. To compare complex stellar spectra on a similar scale, we fit regions of the light that are free from major features blocking it with a best-fit polynomial. This process helps us differentiate components that either belong to the background star or the LMC’s outflowing gas. By examining the missing light, we gain a deeper understanding of how bursts of star formation impact the galactic environment and ultimately connect our existence to the explosive deaths of distant stars.

As stars begin to die, their surface chemistry changes over time. This is due to the combined effect of two competing processes: (1) gravitational settling that causes heavier elements to sink below the stellar surface and (2) radiative acceleration from photons that push gas upward. Although diffusion is a primary physical process in stellar interiors, its impact on surface chemical abundances is often overlooked in large-scale spectroscopic surveys, leading to systematic biases in stellar age estimates. This project investigates the onset (`turn-on') and suppression (`turn-off') signatures of atomic diffusion as dying stars transition into giants. Using high-resolution optical spectra, we will analyse open-cluster stars across various evolutionary stages to identify the age (or mass) threshold at which diffusion becomes detectable and shuts off. The resulting measurements will constrain the magnitude of diffusion-driven abundance changes, the stellar age (or mass) at which diffusion becomes observable, and the efficiency of abundance restoration during the first dredge-up. It will improve stellar age determinations and enhance the precision of Galactic archaeology and chemical-tagging studies.

ZnO is a wide-bandgap semiconductor with applications spanning optoelectronics, photovoltaics, pharmaceuticals, and related technologies. At the micro- and nanoscale, its functional properties are strongly governed by by surface structure, defect chemistry, and electronic states associated with the crystalline free surface. Targeted lattice doping therefore represents an effective strategy for tailoring surface energetics and enabling new functionalities. Fe incorporation has been proposed to stabilize ZnO nano- and microparticle surfaces by mitigating the internal surface dipoles and passivating dangling bonds. Such provides a controlled materials platform for probing the fundamental bactericidal mechanisms of ZnO. Although the origin of ZnO-induced cytotoxicity remains under debate, our recent findings indicate that surface-mediated interactions with bacteria and/or growth media components facilitate Zn²⁺ ion release from reactive surface defect sites. Surface stabilization through Fe doping is expected to reduce the density of these active sites, thereby limiting Zn²⁺ ion release. In this study, we systematically investigate the bulk and surface characteristics of hydrothermally synthesized Fe-doped ZnO across varying doping dopant concentrations. The antibacterial activity of both pure and Fe-doped ZnO is evaluated against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus assays. Structural and chemical analyses are performed using X-ray diffraction and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, whereas Raman spectroscopy is employed to probe dopant-induced modifications in lattice dynamics and bonding, providing further insight into the relationship between surface states and antibacterial performance.

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is a versatile, inexpensive semiconductor material with unique characteristics. ZnO is particularly known for its inhibitory effects on bacterial growth. ZnO can reduce bacterial growth through mechanisms such as oxidative stress, the deterioration of crucial proteins in the bacterial cell, and the release of Zn²⁺ ions that affect bacterial cell function. The exact mechanism behind ZnO’s antibacterial properties remains unclear. It has been seen that changing the surface and morphology of the particles changes their effectiveness for bacterial inhibition. An additional lesser explored branch of ethanol-based synthesis is solution pH pertaining to ZnO morphology. Our research aims to explore this by doing a wholistic investigation of an ethanol-based synthesis, especially pertaining to how pH affects particle morphology. To produce these materials, we used ethanol-based solvothermal synthesis to create ZnO micro- and nanocrystals. We performed a thorough characterization of these materials to observe changes to the ZnO lattice. This was done by employing scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectroscopy.

Graphene quantum dots GQDs possess broad potential in bioimaging and optoelectronics due to their unique optical properties, tunable structure, aqueous solubility, and minimal in vivo and in vitro toxicity. However, despite their solubility, GQD fluorescence may be quenched through interactions with water molecules and aggregation via non radiative decay pathways that reduce emission efficiency. Inspired by the ability of surfactants to prevent quenching interactions for single walled carbon nanotubes, we investigate their utility in preserving GQD fluorescence. Five structurally distinct surfactants, sodium dodecyl sulfate SDS, sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate SDBS, sodium deoxycholate SDC, sodium cholate SC, and Pluronic F127, are tested across a range of concentrations for preserving fluorescence of top down and bottom up synthesized GQDs to determine optimal conditions. This work reveals that surfactant structure and concentration can non-linearly affect GQD emission in the visible and near-infrared, with SC and SDC providing maximum concentration dependent fluorescence increase. Zeta potential and dynamic light scattering measurements are conducted for each surfactant and GQD system to quantify interfacial charge, colloidal stability, and aggregate size distributions. The present study provides mechanistic understanding of how surfactants influence GQD photophysics, offering strategies to optimize GQD based probes for biomedical imaging and photonic applications establishing a structure-to-function framework that links solution phase organization to fluorescence emission.

Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) have gained significant attention due to their unique optical properties, biocompatibility, and potential applications in bioimaging, biosensing, and optoelectronics. The breakdown of single-walled carbon nanotubes provides an alternative method of producing GQDs that has the potential to be more efficient than current methods. We will investigate the effectiveness of various methods to break down single-walled carbon nanotubes, including through UV-light irradiation. Solutions of carbon nanotubes with sodium hypochlorite are placed under 254nm UV-light for two hours, and fluorescence in the visible spectrum is measured before and after UV-light irradiation to observe the production of GQDs. The use of surfactants in these solutions can affect the resulting fluorescence, so solutions of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) are also UV-light irradiated and observed. We will perform transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis on the samples to characterize the resulting GQDs and determine their size distribution. The findings from this study will contribute to the broader scientific community by improving an avenue of production for GQDs through conversion of carbon nanotubes into smaller, more functional materials while reducing the toxicity associated with carbon nanotubes.

Viral entry in a host cell is mediated by interacting viral fusion proteins and cell receptors. After entry, newly translated viral fusion proteins can end up on the surface of the infected cell. If the infected cell comes into contact with a cell expressing the associated receptor, the interaction can result in membrane fusion. The result of this fusion is a multi-nucleated cell, called a syncytium. Syncytia can cause an increase in severity and duration of an infection, as well as cause damage to the surrounding tissue. Syncytia formation is heavily dependent on spatial interactions and some models are not able to represent this component whatsoever. Agent-based models (ABMs) can accurately represent the temporal and spatial components of syncytia formation by simulating interactions between individual cells. We developed an ABM that can model syncytia formation for up to one million cells at a time. Implementing this model computationally, we have begun fitting to cell-cell fusion experimental data. This model allows us to get new spatial parameters that have never been looked into before. By investigating the spatial aspects, we will develop a better understanding of the role of syncytia during viral infections.

Defective interfering particles (DIPs) are virions missing the viral genome that allows them to replicate on their own, so they require coinfection with a standard virion to enable replication, interfering with the production of standard virus in the process. DIPs may also stimulate an interferon (IFN) response that further suppresses standard virus replication. Our aim was to evaluate the impact of DIPs and IFN on viral replication. We used Python programming to simulate a mathematical model evaluating the effects of DIPs and IFN on viral replication. Features of the viral titer curve were measured, including peak viral load and area under the viral curve, as functions of IFN parameters and DIP production rates. We examined a range of parameter values for DIP production rate and IFN response strength to assess the effects of DIPs and IFN independently and together. DIP production rate over a range of values resulted in no change in DIP or standard virus population dynamics. However, decreased IFN response resulted in an increase in standard virus and DIP population, while increased IFN response resulted in decreased standard virus and DIP population. DIP production in isolation did not impact viral replication, while IFN demonstrated an inverse relationship to viral replication and DIP production. Increased IFN and DIP production rate led to a reduction in infection intensity. IFN is essential to the antiviral effects of DIPs.

The lining of the human respiratory tract (HRT) has a layer of ciliated cells known as an epithelium. When exposed to virus, these cells actively push virus into mucous layers lining the epithelium and then funnel this mucous up and out of the human respiratory tract. This process is called mucociliary clearance (MCC) and is the first line of defense against a viral infection. We know that MCC plays a role in preventing respiratory infections, but we know little else. We hypothesize that, under the right conditions, MCC prevents infection by limiting the ability for virus to enter the lower respiratory tract. To test this, we constructed a compartmental model that uses a system of diffusion-driven partial differential equations to describe the virus propagation in the HRT as a travelling wave front with an advection term included to approximate MCC.  Our model shows that MCC can change the waveform of the virus propagation, and suggests that there exists a critical advection speed that prevents virus from entering the lower respiratory tract.

Galaxy simulations are an effective way to study the evolution of galaxies across
cosmic time. They have provided insights into the structural and chemical evolution
of galaxies, gas and star formation, and how LCDM models predict the large scale
structure of universe. Nevertheless, two primary issues have persisted using LCDM -
the core-cusp problem and the diversity of rotation curves for dwarf galaxies of similar
masses. To determine the effect of AGN on these issues, we utilize FIRE-2, which only
includes stellar feedback. We chose this particular galaxy at redshift 0 and compared
the curve to 8 previous observations, and we find that the innermost regions of the
curve are better matched to the data, but diversity still remains a problem. Thus, we
conclude that AGN feedback prescriptions may be removing too much mass from the
center of the galaxy, causing this discrepancy. Hence, more work is necessary to identify
the cause of this issue and potentially resolve it.

Indole derivatives are known to exhibit diverse luminescent behavior that is strongly affected by molecular structure and the surrounding environment. In this work, we investigate a series of regioisomeric indole-based compounds embedded in poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) films. By combining absorption and steady-state fluorescence measurements with room-temperature phosphorescence (RTP), fluorescence and phosphorescence anisotropy, and time-resolved emission decays under UV excitation, we examine how small changes in the position of substitution on the indole scaffold determine the luminescent properties of the studied compounds. Although structurally similar, the regioisomers exhibit distinct absorption and emission maxima, visibly different emission colors, and significantly varied excited-state lifetimes. Immobilization in the PVA matrix selectively enhances RTP for certain compounds, while others remain predominantly fluorescent, indicating a substitution-dependent balance between intersystem crossing and nonradiative decay pathways. Overall, the results indicate that even minor structural modifications in indole-based luminophores result in significant changes in their luminescent properties, and that regioisomerism can be used to control luminescent behavior in polymer matrices.

Influenza virus causes periodic pandemics and thousands of deaths annually, but many of the details of the viral replication cycle are still poorly understood. This study develops a mathematical model of the dynamic transitions of a virus from the extracellular space through the initial intracellular replication processes. These stages include: binding, endocytosis, HA Acidification, Fusion, and Uncoating. Experimental data from the viral entry phases were fit to a system of differential equations, which represent the biological processes. The model parameters were estimated using optimization techniques that minimize the sum of squared residuals, thereby aligning model predictions with observations. An identifiability analysis was performed to see which parameters can be estimated with the given model and available data. We find that the model fits the experimental data well with identifiable parameters, allowing us to characterize the different stages of viral entry. The model can be used to compare different viral strains or treatment options, in addition to helping explain the kinetics of viral entry.

Syncytia are a type of multinucleated cell that can be formed by virus infection. Quantifying their growth is of particular interest for understanding virus infection within the body. One useful tool we have to understand the growth of these cells is ordinary differential equation (ODE) models. Current models neglect the regeneration of cells that form the syncytia. To account for regeneration, we will discuss a proposed modification of a basic model for cell-cell fusion, which will consider the addition of a logistic growth term. In addition, we will also consider a non-negligible death rate of syncytia. By making these modifications, we can better replicate syncytia dynamics. We present mathematical analysis of this model, which gives insight into the factors that generate long-term syncytia formation as well as the overall biological characteristics of such an infection.

When stars form from collapsing gas clouds, about half of them form in pairs (binary systems). However, identifying which stars in the Milky Way and other nearby galaxies are binaries is difficult; even nearby two-star systems look like a single point of light. Due to the distances of even the most nearby galaxies, a method to reliably identify these binary systems is needed. We will apply the Binary Information from Open Clusters Using SEDs (BINOCS) code to aid in separating the light emitted from each star. Open clusters have known ages, distances, and metallicities, so we can apply these parameters to the stars in the clusters to determine their masses and fit to their spectral energy distributions (SEDs). The BINOCS method has successfully been applied to some open clusters; we want to identify which globular clusters and nearby dwarf galaxies the method can be applied to. In order to reach these more distant objects, we need to use deep space-based data. The data we explore in this work is stars from ~200 cluster or galaxy targets observed by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), and Spitzer Space Telescope. The fraction of binaries is a key factor in measuring the amount of dark matter in dwarf galaxies. One example system we plan to analyze is NGC 104, a globular cluster ~15 thousand light years away from Earth, with an age of ~13 billion years.

Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) are spherical nanoparticles comprised of stacked layers of graphene known in part for their biocompatibility and fluorescence, which leads to many potential uses in medicine as a diagnostic tool. Solutions of GQDs are known to fluoresce less when the GQDs are allowed to clump together, leading to processes such as sonication being used to break apart these clumps in research environments. Similarly, the addition of surfactants to a solution of GQDs has also been found to modify fluorescence response of the solution. This research explores the effect of introducing four different human blood proteins on the fluorescence response of reduced graphene quantum dots (rGQDs). Fibrinogen, transferrin, gamma globulin, and albumin were added to samples of rGQDs in increments around their respective concentrations in human blood. Generally, we found that the addition of any of the blood proteins lowered fluorescence response in the visible spectrum. In the near-infrared spectrum, smaller concentrations of blood proteins generally increased fluorescence response, while larger concentrations reduced fluorescence response below the control. This has implications for deep-tissue imaging relying on the near-infrared fluorescence of intravenous GQDs.

Smaller galaxies and old star clusters that have been devoured by our Galaxy, provide unique probes into the assembly history of the Milky Way. Previous studies have characterized these Galactic sub-structures using their kinematics and chemistry, but to fully understand these stellar populations, a record of when individual stars formed is required. To reconstruct this star formation history, we utilize the relationship between the ratio of the amount of carbon and nitrogen on the surface of a star and the age of that star. This [C/N]-Age relationship has been calibrated using both young and old star clusters by Spoo et al. (2022; 2025) allowing its use at a wide range of metallicities (-1.2 ≤ [Fe/H] ≤ +0.3 dex). We apply this “chemical clock” to the accreted sub-structures in order to measure the star formation history of each, so that we can better understand how the Milky Way formed and evolved using its accreted stellar populations.